Table of contents

1. A Review of General Chemistry5h 5m
2. Molecular Representations1h 14m
3. Acids and Bases2h 46m
4. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes4h 17m
5. Chirality3h 39m
6. Thermodynamics and Kinetics1h 22m
7. Substitution Reactions1h 48m
8. Elimination Reactions2h 30m
9. Alkenes and Alkynes2h 9m
10. Addition Reactions3h 19m
11. Radical Reactions1h 58m
12. Alcohols, Ethers, Epoxides and Thiols2h 42m
13. Alcohols and Carbonyl Compounds2h 17m
14. Synthetic Techniques1h 26m
15. Analytical Techniques:IR, NMR, Mass Spect7h 3m
16. Conjugated Systems6h 13m
17. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy51m
18. Aromaticity2h 34m
19. Reactions of Aromatics: EAS and Beyond5h 1m
20. Phenols55m
21. Aldehydes and Ketones: Nucleophilic Addition4h 56m
22. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: NAS2h 51m
23. The Chemistry of Thioesters, Phophate Ester and Phosphate Anhydrides1h 10m
24. Enolate Chemistry: Reactions at the Alpha-Carbon1h 53m
25. Condensation Chemistry2h 9m
26. Amines1h 43m
27. Heterocycles2h 0m
28. Carbohydrates5h 53m
29. Amino Acids4h 20m
30. Peptides and Proteins2h 42m
31. Catalysis in Organic Reactions1h 30m
32. Lipids 2h 50m
33. The Organic Chemistry of Metabolic Pathways2h 52m
34. Nucleic Acids1h 32m
35. Transition Metals6h 14m
36. Synthetic Polymers1h 49m

2. Molecular Representations

Functional Groups

Organic Chemistry

2. Molecular Representations

Functional Groups

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1:53 minutes

Problem 17b

Textbook Question

When we begin studying reactive intermediates, the designation of substitution will be especially important. Label the following carbocations as 1° , 2°, 3°, or 4° or based on the carbon bearing the positive charge.
(b)

Verified step by step guidance

Step 1: Understand the concept of carbocation substitution. The degree of substitution (1°, 2°, 3°, or 4°) refers to the number of carbon atoms directly attached to the carbon bearing the positive charge. A 1° carbocation has one carbon attached, a 2° carbocation has two carbons attached, and so on.

Step 2: Examine the structure of the carbocation provided in part (b). Identify the carbon atom that bears the positive charge.

Step 3: Count the number of carbon atoms directly bonded to the positively charged carbon. These are the substituents that determine the degree of substitution.

Step 4: Based on the count, assign the appropriate designation: 1° (primary), 2° (secondary), 3° (tertiary), or 4° (quaternary). For example, if the positively charged carbon is bonded to three other carbons, it is a 3° carbocation.

Step 5: Verify your answer by ensuring that you have correctly identified the substituents and their direct attachment to the positively charged carbon. Double-check the structure for accuracy.

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Key Concepts

Here are the essential concepts you must grasp in order to answer the question correctly.

Carbocation Stability

Carbocations are positively charged carbon species that are classified based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon bearing the positive charge. The stability of carbocations increases with the degree of substitution: tertiary (3°) carbocations are more stable than secondary (2°), which are more stable than primary (1°). This stability is due to hyperconjugation and the inductive effect of alkyl groups, which help to disperse the positive charge.

Degree of Substitution

The degree of substitution refers to the number of carbon atoms directly attached to the carbon atom that carries the positive charge in a carbocation. A carbon atom can be classified as primary (1°) if it is attached to one other carbon, secondary (2°) if attached to two, tertiary (3°) if attached to three, and quaternary (4°) if attached to four. This classification is crucial for predicting the reactivity and stability of carbocations in organic reactions.

Reactivity of Carbocations

Carbocations are highly reactive intermediates in organic chemistry, often formed during reactions such as electrophilic addition or rearrangements. Their reactivity is influenced by their stability; more stable carbocations are less likely to undergo rearrangement and more likely to participate in subsequent reactions. Understanding the reactivity patterns of different carbocation types is essential for predicting the outcomes of organic reactions.

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Related Practice

Textbook Question

Identify the functional groups in each of the following molecules. [The number of functional groups has been given to assist you.]

(a) [Three]

Textbook Question

When we begin studying reactive intermediates, the designation of substitution will be especially important. Label the following carbocations as 1° , 2°, 3°, or 4° or based on the carbon bearing the positive charge.

(c)

Textbook Question

Given the line-angle drawings shown, answer the following questions:

(i) How many carbons are in each molecule?

(ii) How many hydrogens are at the circled carbon?

(iii) Is the indicated (→) carbon or 1° , 2°, 3°, or 4°?

(h)

Textbook Question

Identify the functional groups in each of the following molecules. [The number of functional groups has been given to assist you.]

Textbook Question

Classify each hydrogen atom in the following compounds as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°).

c. 2-methylbutane

d. cyclohexane

Textbook Question

Label each hydrogen atom in the following compounds as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°).

(e)

(f)

Textbook Question

Label each hydrogen atom in the following compounds as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°).

(d)

Textbook Question

How many carbons are in the planar double-bond system in each of the following compounds?

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When we begin studying reactive intermediates, the designation of substitution will be especially important. Label the following carbocations as 1° , 2°, 3°, or 4° or based on the carbon bearing the positive charge. (b)

Key Concepts

Carbocation Stability

Degree of Substitution

Reactivity of Carbocations

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When we begin studying reactive intermediates, the designation of substitution will be especially important. Label the following carbocations as 1° , 2°, 3°, or 4° or based on the carbon bearing the positive charge.
(b)