Table of contents

1. A Review of General Chemistry5h 5m
2. Molecular Representations1h 14m
3. Acids and Bases2h 46m
4. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes4h 17m
5. Chirality3h 39m
6. Thermodynamics and Kinetics1h 22m
7. Substitution Reactions1h 48m
8. Elimination Reactions2h 30m
9. Alkenes and Alkynes2h 9m
10. Addition Reactions3h 19m
11. Radical Reactions1h 58m
12. Alcohols, Ethers, Epoxides and Thiols2h 42m
13. Alcohols and Carbonyl Compounds2h 17m
14. Synthetic Techniques1h 26m
15. Analytical Techniques:IR, NMR, Mass Spect7h 3m
16. Conjugated Systems6h 13m
17. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy51m
18. Aromaticity2h 34m
19. Reactions of Aromatics: EAS and Beyond5h 1m
20. Phenols55m
21. Aldehydes and Ketones: Nucleophilic Addition4h 56m
22. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: NAS2h 51m
23. The Chemistry of Thioesters, Phophate Ester and Phosphate Anhydrides1h 10m
24. Enolate Chemistry: Reactions at the Alpha-Carbon1h 53m
25. Condensation Chemistry2h 9m
26. Amines1h 43m
27. Heterocycles2h 0m
28. Carbohydrates5h 53m
29. Amino Acids4h 20m
30. Peptides and Proteins2h 42m
31. Catalysis in Organic Reactions1h 30m
32. Lipids 2h 50m
33. The Organic Chemistry of Metabolic Pathways2h 52m
34. Nucleic Acids1h 32m
35. Transition Metals6h 14m
36. Synthetic Polymers1h 49m

1. A Review of General Chemistry

Hybridization

Organic Chemistry

1. A Review of General Chemistry

Hybridization

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5:52 minutes

Problem 8g,h,i

Textbook Question

What orbitals are used to form the carbon–carbon s bond between the highlighted carbons?
g.
h.
i.

Verified step by step guidance

Step 1: Analyze the bonding in each structure. In organic molecules, sigma (σ) bonds are formed by the overlap of orbitals. The type of orbitals involved depends on the hybridization of the atoms forming the bond.

Step 2: For structure (i), the highlighted carbons are part of a double bond. Double bonds consist of one sigma bond and one pi bond. The sigma bond is formed by the overlap of sp² hybrid orbitals from each carbon atom.

Step 3: For structure (ii), the highlighted carbons are part of a triple bond. Triple bonds consist of one sigma bond and two pi bonds. The sigma bond is formed by the overlap of sp hybrid orbitals from each carbon atom.

Step 4: For structure (iii), the highlighted carbons are part of a double bond. Similar to structure (i), the sigma bond is formed by the overlap of sp² hybrid orbitals from each carbon atom.

Step 5: Summarize the orbital interactions: (i) sp²-sp² overlap for the sigma bond, (ii) sp-sp overlap for the sigma bond, and (iii) sp²-sp² overlap for the sigma bond.

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Key Concepts

Here are the essential concepts you must grasp in order to answer the question correctly.

Hybridization

Hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals that can accommodate bonding. In carbon, the most common hybridizations are sp3, sp2, and sp, which correspond to single, double, and triple bonds, respectively. Understanding hybridization is crucial for predicting the geometry and bond angles in molecules.

Sigma (σ) Bonds

Sigma bonds are the first bonds formed between two atoms and are characterized by the head-on overlap of orbitals. In carbon–carbon bonds, σ bonds can be formed by the overlap of sp3, sp2, or sp hybrid orbitals. Recognizing the type of σ bond is essential for understanding molecular structure and reactivity.

Bonding Orbitals

Bonding orbitals are regions in a molecule where the probability of finding electrons is high, leading to the formation of chemical bonds. In the context of carbon–carbon bonds, the specific orbitals involved (such as sp3, sp2, or sp) determine the bond's strength and characteristics. Identifying these orbitals is key to analyzing molecular interactions.

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Related Practice

Textbook Question

What is the hybridization of carbon in each of the following molecules?

(a)

Textbook Question

What is the hybridization of carbon in each of the following molecules?

(d)

Textbook Question

Draw the molecular orbital picture for propane. Your picture should clearly show the shape and hybridization of the carbons. Label all σ bonds.

Textbook Question

Predict the shape and hybridization of the indicated atoms.

Textbook Question

What orbitals contain the electrons represented as lone pairs in the structures of quinoline, indole, imidazole?

Textbook Question

What orbital do the lone-pair electrons occupy in each of the following compounds?

Textbook Question

In addition to radicals, anions, and cations, a fourth class of reactive intermediates is carbenes. A neutral species, the simplest carbene has a molecular formula of CH₂.

(b) What are the hybridization and shape of the central carbon of CH₂?

Textbook Question

Predict the hybridization of the indicated atoms.

(b)

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