Table of contents

1. A Review of General Chemistry5h 5m
2. Molecular Representations1h 14m
3. Acids and Bases2h 46m
4. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes4h 17m
5. Chirality3h 39m
6. Thermodynamics and Kinetics1h 22m
7. Substitution Reactions1h 48m
8. Elimination Reactions2h 30m
9. Alkenes and Alkynes2h 9m
10. Addition Reactions3h 19m
11. Radical Reactions1h 58m
12. Alcohols, Ethers, Epoxides and Thiols2h 42m
13. Alcohols and Carbonyl Compounds2h 17m
14. Synthetic Techniques1h 26m
15. Analytical Techniques:IR, NMR, Mass Spect7h 3m
16. Conjugated Systems6h 13m
17. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy51m
18. Aromaticity2h 34m
19. Reactions of Aromatics: EAS and Beyond5h 1m
20. Phenols55m
21. Aldehydes and Ketones: Nucleophilic Addition4h 56m
22. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: NAS2h 51m
23. The Chemistry of Thioesters, Phophate Ester and Phosphate Anhydrides1h 10m
24. Enolate Chemistry: Reactions at the Alpha-Carbon1h 53m
25. Condensation Chemistry2h 9m
26. Amines1h 43m
27. Heterocycles2h 0m
28. Carbohydrates5h 53m
29. Amino Acids4h 20m
30. Peptides and Proteins2h 42m
31. Catalysis in Organic Reactions1h 30m
32. Lipids 2h 50m
33. The Organic Chemistry of Metabolic Pathways2h 52m
34. Nucleic Acids1h 32m
35. Transition Metals6h 14m
36. Synthetic Polymers1h 49m

1. A Review of General Chemistry

Hybridization

Organic Chemistry

1. A Review of General Chemistry

Hybridization

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1:18 minutes

Problem 40a

Textbook Question

Use hybrid orbitals to draw the following molecules.
(a)

Verified step by step guidance

Step 1: Understand the concept of hybrid orbitals. Hybrid orbitals are formed by the mixing of atomic orbitals (such as s, p, and sometimes d orbitals) to create new orbitals that are better suited for bonding in molecules. Common types include sp, sp², and sp³ hybridization.

Step 2: Determine the central atom in the molecule and its steric number. The steric number is calculated as the sum of the number of bonded atoms and lone pairs around the central atom. This will help identify the type of hybridization.

Step 3: Assign the hybridization based on the steric number. For example: steric number 2 corresponds to sp hybridization, steric number 3 corresponds to sp² hybridization, and steric number 4 corresponds to sp³ hybridization.

Step 4: Draw the molecule using the hybrid orbitals. Represent the central atom with its hybrid orbitals and show the bonding with other atoms. For example, sp hybrid orbitals form linear geometry, sp² hybrid orbitals form trigonal planar geometry, and sp³ hybrid orbitals form tetrahedral geometry.

Step 5: Include any lone pairs on the central atom in the drawing, ensuring that the geometry matches the hybridization. Verify that the drawing adheres to the molecular geometry and bonding rules.

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Key Concepts

Here are the essential concepts you must grasp in order to answer the question correctly.

Hybridization

Hybridization is the process of combining atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals that can accommodate the bonding requirements of a molecule. This concept is crucial for understanding molecular geometry and bonding properties, as it explains how atoms can form equivalent bonds in molecules. For example, in methane (CH4), the carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridization, resulting in four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals that form sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms.

Molecular Geometry

Molecular geometry refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms within a molecule, which is determined by the hybridization of the central atom and the presence of lone pairs. Understanding molecular geometry is essential for predicting the shape and reactivity of molecules. For instance, the tetrahedral shape of methane arises from the sp3 hybridization of carbon, leading to bond angles of approximately 109.5 degrees.

Bonding and Lone Pairs

In molecular structures, bonding pairs of electrons are shared between atoms to form covalent bonds, while lone pairs are non-bonding pairs of electrons localized on an atom. The presence of lone pairs affects the geometry and angles between bonds due to their repulsive interactions. For example, in ammonia (NH3), the lone pair on nitrogen compresses the H-N-H bond angle to about 107 degrees, deviating from the ideal tetrahedral angle.

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Use hybrid orbitals to draw the following molecules.(a)

Key Concepts

Hybridization

Molecular Geometry

Bonding and Lone Pairs

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Use hybrid orbitals to draw the following molecules.
(a)